General Knowledge for SSC Exams (Ancient India)

The discovery of Mohenjodaro and Harappa by British archaeologist: Marshall proved that Indian civilization is the oldest civilization in the world. Even India came before Greece, considered the oldest civilization before the discovery of Mohenjodaro and Harappa. The main features of Ancient Indian History are as follows:

Indus Valley Civilization

Discovery : In 1921, R.B. Dayaram Sahani, first discovered Harappa, in the Montgomery district of the Punjab. According to radio-carbon dating, it spread from the year 2350-1750.

Dr. R. D. Banerjee found the ancient city Mohenjodaro (literally, ‘city of the dead’) in Larkana district of Sindh, now in Pakistan in 1922.

The Marvelous Town Planning of Mohenjodaro: A chief feature of Mohenjodaro is its superb town planning. The streets, which divided the city into neat rectangular or square blocks, varied in width but always intersected each other at right angles. The city had an elaborate drainage system, consisting of horizontal and vertical drains, street drains and so on. The architecture of the buildings was clearly intended to be functional and minimalist, and certainly not to please the aesthete. Mohenjodaro was obviously a cosmopolitan city, with people of different races mingling with the local populace-Proto-Austroloid, Mediterranean, Alpine and Mongoloid.Before the coming of Aryans, there was a civilization that was not only well-developed, but actually far more sophisticated than that of the Aryans. The beginning and end of the Indus Valley Civilization are both a matter of debate because people could not have emerged complete with their perfect town planning, neat houses, lovely jewellery and loads of make-up. So where did they come from? and then having come, just where did they disappear? Popular theory, which is most accepted is that the people of the Harappan civilization were chased out by the Aryans and went down south. The present South Indians are their descendants.

The Vedic Period (1500 Bc-600 Bc)

Initially, Aryans settled in the area of Sapt-Sindhu, which included Punjab, Kashmir, Sindh, Kabul and Gandhara (Kandhar). The chief sources of this period are The Vedas and the Epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, which through their stories and hymns tell us about the expansion of the Aryans. The epic Ramayana is a symbolic tale which tells of the Aryan expansion to the south-the good, almost godly, aryaputra (an Aryan’s son) king Rama surging forth to finish off the evil Dasyu (that was what the Aryans called the natives) Ravana.

Aryans Political System

There was complex political system. They hung around together in small village settlements (which later grew to kingdoms) and the basis of their political and social organization was the clan or kula. It was very much a patriarchal society, with the man the house expected to keep his clan in control.

The King was the Supreme Power

The king was the supreme power though he had to work in tandem with the people’s wishes. He had an elaborate court of many officials, including the chief queen (Mahishi) who was elected to help in the decision making process. Two Assemblies, Sabha and Samiti further assisted the king.

No Rigidity in Caste System

The caste system was a loose social system where people could move up and down the social scale. Aryan’s worshipped nature gods-they prayed to the Usha (Dawn), Prajapati (The Creator), Rudra (Thunder), Indra (Rain), Surya (Sun) and so on. These gods and goddesses were appeased by prayers and sacrifices. The status of woman declined.
There are 6 school of Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshans.

The earliest reference to the 4 Ashramas - Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanprastha and Sanyara in found in teh Jabala Upanishad.

Growth of Buddhism and Jainism

Buddhism and Jainism were instant hits with the populace and became powerful clannish minorities while the bulk of the people remained with Aryanism. Not for long, however. As the two new religions which had extremely charismatic leaders and very zealous followers caught the people’s imagination, the influence of both faiths spread enough for kings to profess and actively promote them.

Buddhism

Buddhism founded by Gautam Budha or Siddhartha.

•  The Buddha also known is Sakyamuni or Tathagata.

•  Born in 563 BC on the Vaishakha Poornima day at Lumbini (near Kapilavastu), in Nepal

•  His father Suddhodana was the Shakya/Sakya ruler

•  His mother (Mahamaya, of Kosala dynasty) died after 7 days of his birth, brought up by stepmother Gautami.

•  Married at the age of 10 to Yoshodhara. Enjoyed the married life for 3 years and had a son named Rahul.

•  After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, he decided to become a wanderer.

•  Left his palace at the age of 29 in search of truth (also called Mahabhinishkramana’ or the Cheat renunciation) and wandered for 6 years.

•  Attained ‘Enlightenment’ at Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipal tree.

•  Delivered the first sermon at Samath where his five disciples had settled. His first Sermon is called ‘Dharmachakra Privartana’ or ‘Turning of the wheel of Law’.

•  Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria district of UP), in 483 BC at the age of 80 In the Malla republic.

Buddhist Councils

First Council : At Rajgriha, in 483 BC under the Chairmanship of Mehakassaapa (king was Ajatshatru). Divided the teachings of Buddha in to two Pitakas- Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka.

Second Council : At Vaisahali, in 383 BC under Sabakami (King was Kalarouka), followers divided into Sthavirmadins and Mahasanghikas.

Third Council : At Pataliputra, in 250 BC under Magaliputa Tissa (King was Ashoka) In this, the third part of the Tripitaka was coded in the Pali language.

Fourth Council : At Kashmir (Kundalvan) in 72 AD under Vasumitra (King was Kanishka, Vice-Chairman was ashwaghosha), divided Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana sects.

Buddist Literature : In Pali language.

Vinaya Pitaka : Rules of discipline in the Buddhist monasteries.

Sutta Pitaka : Largest, contains collection of Buddha’s sermons.

Abhidhamma Pitaka : Explanation of the philosophical principles of the Buddhist religion.

Buddhist architecture development in three forms.
(i) Stupa - relics at the Buddha or same prominent Buddhist marks are preserval.
(ii) Chaita - prayer Hall
(iii) Vihara - reridence

Jainism

•  There were 24 Tirthankaras (Prophets or Gurus), all Kashtriyas. First was Rishabhnath (Emblem: Bull).

•  The 23rd Tirthankar Parashwanath (Emblem: Snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of Banaras.

•  The 24th and last Tirthankar was Vardhman Mahavira (Emblem: Lion). He was born in kundagram (Distt Muzaffarpur, Bihar) in 599 BC.

•  His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika Clan.

•  His mother was Trishla, sister of Lichchavi prince. Chetak of Vaishali.

•  Mahavira was related to Bimbisara.

•  Married to Yashoda, had a daughter named Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became his first disciple.

•  At the age of 30, after the death of his parents, he became an ascetic.

•  In the 13th year of his asceticism (on the 10th of Vaishakha), outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he attained supreme knowledge (kaivalya).

•  From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and Mahavira, and his followers were named Jains. He also got the title of Arihant, i.e., worthy.

•  At the age of 72, he attained death of Pava, near Patna, in 527 Bc.

•  Mahavira preached almost the same message as Parshvanath and added one more, Brahmcharya (celibacy) to it.

•  Five vows of Janism are

•  Ahimsa ( non-jury)

•  Satya (non-lying)

•  Asteya (non-stealing)

•  Aparigraha (non-possession)

•  Brahmacharya (chasty)

India was divided into sixteen states as ‘Mahajanapadas’ just before the rise at Buddhism in India. The 16 states are
1. Anga
2. Magadha
3. Kasi
4. Kosala
5. Vijji
6. Malla
7. Chedi
8. Vansal/Vatsa
9. Kuru
10. Panchala
11. Matsya
12. Suresena
13. Assaka
14. Avanti
15. Gandhara
16. Kamboja

Magadh Empire

Haryanka

The Kingdom at Magadha emerged to be most powerful. The first important Magadha king, who emerges into the limelight was Bimbisara (544–491 BC) of the. He was an extremely polished diplomat and crafty statesman. While the earlier rulers had brought Magadha out of clear and present danger, it was Bimbisara, who consolidated and increased that power and really gave it the identity of a kingdom. Bimbisara was a contemporary of the Buddha and met him twice. When he met him the second time, in Rajgriha (which is an important Buddhist pilgrimage today), Bimbisara converted to Buddhism. Bimbisara was assassinated by his impatient son Ajatsatru. Ajatsatru continued his imperialist policies. The most famous rivalry went on between him and the Lichchavi dynasty that ruled Vaishali (in Bihar), which he eventually managed to conquer. Ajatsatru was a colourful character and a man of sentiment. There are tales of his passionate affair with the chief courtesan of Vaishali, called Amrapali. During his reign, that Buddha attained parinirvana (nirvana from all births and bonds). Ajatsatru insisted upon a part of his relics be buried in a stupa (shrine) that he got erected in Rajgriha.

Ajatshtru was succeeded by his son Vdayin, he haid the foundation of the city of patliputra.

Shishunaga Dynasty

The Shishunanga dynasty faded fast after Ajatsatru. The last recorded ruler of the family was Kakavarna who was put to death by Mahapadmananda, of the Nanda dynasty, which followed the Shishunagas.
The Nandas known for their airs of magnificence and immense wealth (which they amassed by huge taxation). They were of lowborn sudra stock and hence had the odds stacked against them right from the start. The Nandas, though very powerful with a huge standing army and a grand court, were apparently a very vain lot. The most famous of this dynasty was Dhanananda. He started his own downfall by insulting a certain unsightly looking Brahmin, who unfortunately for Dhanananda, turned out to have surprising vision, intellect and Machiavellian cunning.

Alexander Invasion (Great Invasion)

Alexander, the son of Phillip of Macedonia (Greece), invaded India in 326 BC. His major battle was with Poras, the king of Punjab on the banks of river Jhelum. Alexander emerged victorius. It was the result of Alexander’s invasion that the link between India and the West was initiated.

Mauryan Dynasty (321 Bc-185 BC)

The dynasty that Chandragupta and Chanakya established in Magadha together, was the first real dynasty of Indian history. There is no certain theory about the lineage of Mauryas. One of the most prominent theory was that he was actually the son of Dhanananda mistress called Mura, and hence the name Maurya. Whatever might be the lineage of Chandragupta Maurya, Chanakya, with him made a formidable team and stayed together till the end of Chandragupta’s reign, when Chanakya lived to see the early half of his successor Bindusara’s (298-273BC) reign too. There is sufficient evidence to prove that elaborate planning and much intrigue went to shake the Nandas out of the Magadha throne. Megasthenese was a Greek to the court at maurya by selecus Nikator. Chandragupt occupied, magadhan throne in 321 B.C. with the help at ‘Chanakya’ (Kautilya), (Vishnu Gupta).

He was a dynamic and brilliant diplomat. He started sending and receiving missions to Egypt, Greece, Persia, Mesopotamia and various other countries. Trade increased, the economy prospered and there was general prosperity in the kingdom. He was succeeded by Ashoka the Great.

Ashoka the Great

Ashoka Piyadassi Maurya (269-232 BC) was perhaps Buddhism’s most famous convert. He has caught the imagination of many as the cruel king who suddenly, after one battle, saw the light and became an avowed non-violent though he did put all his brothers to death to come to the throne, but then that was no different from what any other aspiring king would have done, and no doubt any of his brothers in similar circumstances would have done the same. It was during Ashoka’s reign, for the first time, almost the entire regions of present-day India were united under one central authority. Ashoka made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka propounded the philosophy of Dhamma, which was something like correct moral code of conduct meets metaphysics. It has been suggested that Ashoka abandoned all violence so thoroughly that he even disbanded the army. Ashoka also sent Buddhist missionaries abroad to spread the light; the most famous of these was sent to then Ceylon (Sri Lanka), under his own son Mahindra and daughter Sanghamitra.

After Ashoka, a few Mauryan kings came but they could not sustain the kingdom. Consequently, the Mauryans were succeeded by Pushyamitra Sunga (184-149 BC)

The Post-maurya Period

In the post-Maurya period, three dynasties jostled, came and went with astonishing speed on the Magadhan throne. The first among these were the Sungas, under whom the country made certain progress. The Sunga rulers were also quite successful in checking foreign invasions. Art and culture also flourished considerably under the Sungas who were particularly known to be great patrons of both. The Sungas were followed by the Kanvas, who were almost like a blip in the scene of Indian history, lasting only 45 years in all, The other important dynasty of this Post­Mauryan confusion was the Andhras or the Satavahanas. According to traditional sources, they were apparently Dasyus (as opposed to Aryans) from south India. Even in Ashoka’s time, this dynasty had risen to quite a bit of prominence along the southwest regions. Though the dynasty was founded by Simukha (235-213 BC), it had 30 kings in all.
One of the most famous rulers of this dynasty was Sri Satkarni (194-184 BC), who had a kingdom covering almost all of south India, down to the andhra region and around with his capital as the present Aurangabad. The next important dynasty to step into the scene were the Kushanas, about whom not much is known. Though there is controversy even over the date of accession of their most important king Kanishka, he most probably ruled sometime in the first century AD. Kanishka has been greatly associated with Buddhism and his reign made the religion popular again. It was in his reign that Buddhism split into two sects, Hinayana (the older simpler religion when Buddha was not considered God) and Mahayana (the more ritualistic Buddhism, which worships the Buddha). The latter was the state religion of the Kushanas, who were Indo-Greek by origin.

Gupta Dynasty

After the Kushanas, India saw political unity only under the second great dynasty of ancient Indian history after the Mauryas, the Guptas. The imperial Guptas were great conquerors, efficient administrators and renowned patrons of the arts, science and culture. What’s more, they lasted for long; they had at least six strong rulers. Their reign is called the Golden Age of ancient Indian history. It is during this reign that the Hinduism was revived. To revive the glory of the ‘old’ culture, which had been obscured by the so-called foreign rulers, must have been a matter of pride for them. For example the caste system came back with a vengeance but no longer as the flexible loose social structure of the early Aryan days, but a strict code that later became such a curse for India.

Great Rulers of Gupta Dynasty

The first Gupta king was Chandra Gupta (320-335 AD), though not much is known about him. Next in line was Samudragupta (335-375 AD) who, by all accounts, seemed to have been nothing short of a genius. He introduced the concept of annexation. It meant that he retained the old kings as vassals to keep the administration going. He was a skillful diplomat who had excellent relations with not only foreign rulers but also his vassal-kings, surely a much more difficult task to achieve, Due to his ingenious ideas of government, Samudragupta could establish a really powerful empire. He was also a great scholar and was especially fond of poetry and spiritual studies.

Samudragupta was followed by his elder son Ramagupta (375-380 AD), who was a blot on that proud family’s good name. Apparently he was having immense trouble with the central Asian Saka invaders who refused to budge from borders of the empire and threatened to come in. Ramagupta sued for peace, and the Saka king agreed on one condition that his queen Dhruvadevi he surrendered to him. Which was okay with Ramagupta, but not his younger samudragupta who, disguised as the queen, entered the Saka camp and killed his brother and married Dhruvadevi and succeeded the throne. He came to be called Chandragupta Vikramaditya (380-413AD) and was an excellent ruler. Vikramaditya’s main achievement was that he managed to quash the stronghold of the Saka might (called the Saka Satraps) in India. Fa-Hien, the famous Chinese Buddhist traveller-student came to India during his rule. The next kings of the dynasty were Kumaragupta (413-AD) anupta (455—468 AD). They were considerably troubled by foreign invasions, especially the latter who had to contend with the Huns. The Huns, were defeated by Skandagupta. The period between 458—540 AD saw five Gupta rulers and the slipping away of the reigns of a once-powerful kingdom away from their hands. The Guptas were the last great dynasty to rule India till the Delhi Sultanate came along much later and certainly they were the end of great Aryan rulers.

Vardhana Dynasty

The final important ruler of Ancient Indian history was Harsha Vardhana (606-646 AD), who ruled not from Magadha but Thanesar (in modern Haryana area) of the Vardhana dynasty. He was a Buddhist and convened many Buddhist assemblies. The second Chinese traveller to come to India, Huien Tsang, arrived during his reign. The south presented a medley of dynasties around the time of Harsha Vardhana. There were the Pandyas (in regions of Mudurai, Travancore and Tinnevelly), the Chalukyas (in present Maharashtra region) and Pallavas (in modem Tamil Nadu region), who had this terrific battle of supremacy going constantly. Pulakesan H (610-642AD) was the ablest of the Chalukyan kings and for a time managed to keep the Chalukyan flag flying above the others.

Other Dynasties

The Most Powerful Cholas

The most important dynasty to rise out of the southern India was Cholas. Unlike other dynasties (the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Pandvas or the Rashtrakutas), their origins are not traced from outside, but very much from the south itself. The Deccan region was at this time in much turmoil.

The Cholas managed with sheer tenacity over a period of 300 years from 900-1100 AD. This period saw the final settling down and consolidation of Tamil culture. In whatever sphere­whether of social institutions, religion, fine arts, music, dance, jewellery, the standards that were set during this period came to be regarded as classical, and dominate, in a modified form, much of the living patterns of south Indians even today. This period also saw the spread of this culture overseas to Southeast Asia, regions with whom the Cholas had strong political and economic relations.

The Cholas came to power in the middle of the 9th century AD. The first ruler was Rajaraja Chola I (985-1014 AD) and his son and successor Rajendra Chola (1014-1035AD). Both father and son put their heads down and campaigned in almost every direction. The Cholas had an effective navy and Rajaraja, with a view to control this trade route completely, led an attack to the Maldive Islands too. Rajendra I, ruled together with father for two years before going solo in 1014 AD. He aggressively continued his father’s imperialist policies with the annexation of the region around modem Hyderabad, which was controlled by the Chalukyas at that time. He also turned his attention northwards where he reached right upto the Ganges valley, Orissa and west Bengal areas. Rajendra Chola I was killed in 1052 AD, in battle against his old foes, the Chalukyas.

Ascent of Rajput Power

The timed the fading away of Harsha Vardhana (606-646 AD) and with it the Vardhana might and the rise of Islamic power in India was occupied with the ascent of Rajput power. This, however, wap a very short-lived period, mainly due to the in-fighting among the fiercely divided Rajputs. As can be imagined, India under the Rajputs was not exactly what one could call a single and completely unified unit. Delhi and Ajmer, under the Chauhans, were the most powerful states of this period. However, the first Rajputs to hit Delhi were the Tomaras. One of the earliest Tomara rulers to settle in Delhi. Their rule was pretty, short-lived, though, and soon the Chauhan Rajputs under the generalship of Prithviraj Chauhan seized control of Lal Kot-Quila Rai Pithora in the 12th century. There were other states where Rajputs were gaining prominence. Like Kanauj (in present Uttar Pradesh) where in this period ruled Jaichand, a Rathore (another Rajput family) ruler, who was a bitter rival of Prithviraj Chauhan. In Bundelkhand (in Madhya Pradesh), the Chandravansi (of the moon family) Chandelas were ruling.

Malwa and Gujarat were under the Paramaras (the most important ruler was king Bhoj) and Chaulukyas (who are supposed to descendants of the Chalukyas) respectively. This was a very troubled time in Indian history. There was no clear central authority in sight and each petty ruler was daring to dream the mad dream of ruling all over the country-which at that point in time meant basically the Gangetic plains and the Deccan.
This is the main reason why no ruler was able to hold Delhi long enough to establish a kingdom here, and also the principle reason why the Arabs and Turks did not exactly have to sweat to the bone to stamp their ority all over them.

MEDIEVAL INDIA

The Sultanate of Delhi (1206 Ad-1526 Ad)

Mohammad Ghori invaded India & laid the foundation of the Muslim dominion in India. He may be considered the ‘found of Muslim rule’ in India.

The Slave Dynasty (1206-90)

He was a Turkish slave by origin, he was powerhard by Mohammad Ghori who later made him his Governer. After the death of Ghori, Aibak founded the slave Dyanrty in 1206.

He caustructed ‘Ahai din ka Jopra’ at Ajmer. He also began the construction of Qutub Minar. His successor Iltutmish (1211 to 1235 AD) completed the construciton of Qutub Minar slave dynarty is also famous for having given Indian its first woman ruler.

Rajia was succeeded by his brother Bahram Shah. Another important rular of slave dynasty was Balbau who introduced ‘Sajda & Paibor’ as the normal forms of salutation.

The Khilji Dynasty (1209-1320 AD)

Jalaludin Khilji founded the Khilji Dynarty. Another important rules was Alaudin Khilji- Amir Khusrau was his favourite court poet.

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD)

Important rules was:- Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, Mohammad-bin-Tughlq, Firoz Shah Tughalaq.

The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD)

Bahlol Lodhi founded teh lodhi Dynasty. Sikandar Lodhi shifted his capital from Dehli to Agra, a city founded by him. Ibrahim Lodhi was the least king at teh Lodhi Dynasty.

The Mughal Dynasty

(1526 AD-1540 AD and 1555 AD-1857 AD)

The first Mughal who invaded Delhi Sultanate was Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (1526­1530 AD), who had the blood of the great central Asian families of Chingez Khan from his mother’s side and that of Timur from his father’s, had been hunting for a home to call his own since he was a teenager. He had been driven out of Samarkand and forced to set up a kingdom elsewhere by his cousins and uncles. Babur looked at Kabul in Afghanistan to start afresh. In 1526, he crossed over the Indus to reach Panipat, where he defeated Ibrahim Lodi in one of the most significant battles of Indian history. Babur was -a military general of formidable credentials and his troops would follow him everywhere, and indeed did for thoroughly battle-scarred his tenure. The first person he defeated was Rana Sanga, who was perhaps appalled at Babur’s obvious intentions of getting comfortable and staying on in Delhi. After taking Mewar, Babur moved on other battlefields, defeating many kingdoms with a speed which was astonishing.

Babur was succeeded by his son Humayun in 1530 AD, and ruled till 1556 AD, in between which there was a break of 16 years when Sher Shah Suri (1540-1556), an Afghan noble, overthrew him. However, after a long struggle Humayun was able to take back his kingdom when, his sister, Gulbadan Begum wrote his biography “Humayunama”. Sher Shah Suri died. Not for long though, for Humayun died the very same year by slipping from the staircase of his library.

Humayun was succeeded by his son Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (1556-1605 AD), at the age of 14. In 1556 AD, 14-year-old Akbar led his first army to battle in the famous old battlefield of Panipat which no doubt was a sentimental moment for him because, like all Mughals, he was fiercely clannish. The Second battle of Panipat was fought in between him and Hemu, the Prime Minister of the Sultan of Bengal, who had set out against Akbar, the moment he heard the news about Humayun’s death.

This battle was to decide the future of the young Mughal for Hemu was a formidable antagonist. Akbar managed to decisively beat Hemu. What helped him was that Hemu got a little carried away and arrived in battle on an elephant, which made him a pretty much a sitting duck; Akbar shot him an arrow right into the eye. As soon as this occurred Hemu’s army panicked and ran away, and Hemu himself was killed by Akbar. If the first battle of Panipat signaled the arrival of the Mughals, the second was of greater importance. Akbar fought battles all over India, and at the end of it all had an empire that stretched down to the present Karnataka in the south, touching right upto the Hindukush range in the north, all of Rajasthan in the west and after taking in Kashmir and Bihar going on to Bengal in the east. Akbar was not only a good military man but he had a great head for diplomacy and statesmanship as well. He is famous for his Rajput diplomacy, which included some strategic matrimonial alliances (an idea he was the first to use), that turned the fiercely independent Rajputs from his hitter enemies to staunch allies who were ready to lay down their lives for him. He also made many reforms in administration and army management, and started many innovations.In 1600 AD, Jahangir rebelled against Akbar when he was away in the Deecan engaged in battle. In the confusion of events to follow, Abul Fazl was killed, which made the great Mughal emperor lived with his son. In October 1605, Akbar fell ill and Jahangir was crowned emperor by him when he was on his death bed. Jahangir married Nur Jahan in 1611. Nur Jahan was the real power behind Jahangir. She was a great queen, and a woman of amazing gifts. She was quite a beauty and set many trends in designs of clothes, textiles and jewellery. The attar (perfume) of roses was just one of this great lady’s innovations. She was also a very capable and shrewd administrator. No detail, however small, escaped the queen’s attention. Her ability to keep a cool head was almost legendary and she amazed even battle­hardy generals with her calm and poise in the middle of crisis. She has been accused of nepotism and of giving rise to a class of nobility which composed entirely of her kith and kin, but that she was entirely in control is dear fns the fact that she rebuked even her brother when she thought so fit. However, Nur Jahan was not without failings and her biggest was ambition, not only for herself but for her child-a daughter from earlier marriage.

Jahangir was succeeded by his son Shahjahan. The reign of Shahjahan has been widely acclaimed as the golden period of the Mughal dynasty. Except for one drought in 1630 in the areas of Deccan, Gujrat and Khandesh, the kingdom was secure and free from poverty. The coffers of the state were brimming with the right stuff. So it’s no wonder that Shahjahan was the greatest and most assiduous builder of the Mughal dynasty. In 1639, he decided to shift his capital to Delhi and construct a new city there on the banks of the Yamuna, near Ferozabad.

It was to be called Shahjahanabad and the famously spectacular peacock throne (the one that Nadir Shah took away) was transferred from Agra to the Red Fort, the new -seat of the Mughal rulers, on April 8,1648. His greatest and most memorable of achievements of course was the breathtaking Taj Mahal, which he built in the memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, who died in child birth. The end of Shahjahan’s reign did not live upto the beginning; it saw one of the messiest battles of succession that Indian history ever witnessed. In September 1657, Shahjahan fell ill and it was rumored that the emperor was dead. This was enough to spark off intense intrigue in the court. All the four claimants to Shahjahan’s throne were the children of the same mother. in 1657, Dara Shikoh was 43, Shah Shuja 41, Aurangzeb 39 and Murad 33. All of them were governors of various provinces: Dara was the governor of Punjab, Murad of Gujrat, Aurangzeb of the Deeean and Shah Shuja of Bengal. Aurangzeb was the ablest of Shahjahan’s sons and a clear favorite for the throne. His credentials, both in battle and administration were legendary. Aurangzeb beat the armies of Dara Shikoh, Murad along with the Mughal armies twice in battle, and move towards Agra, where Shah Jahan was convalescing. Aurangzeb ruled the single largest state ever in Mughal history. Aurangzeb’s rise to the throne was ruthless. However, he was no more cruel than others of his family. He succeeded not because he was crueller but because he was more efficient and more skilled in the game of statecraft with its background of dissimulation; and if it’s any consolation, he never shed unnecessary blood.

Once established he showed himself a firm and capable administrator who retained his grip of power until his death at the age of 88. He was an orthodox Sunni Muslim who thought himself a model Muslim ruler. In this zealousness to promote the cause of Islam, Aurangzeb made many fatal blunders and needless enemies. He alienated the Rajputs, whose valuable and trusted loyalty had been so hard won by his predecessors, revolted against him. Eventually he managed to make peace with them, but he could never be easy in his mind about Rajputana again, a fact that hampered his Deeean conquest severely. Then, he made bitter enemies in the Sikhs and the Marathas. Things came to such a head that Guru Teg Bahadur, the 9th Guru of the Sikhs was at first tortured and then executed by Aurangzeb for not accepting Islam; a martyrdom which is mourned to this day by the Sikh community. The 10th Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Govind Singh then raised an open banner of revolt against Aurangzeb. By the death of Aurangzeb in Aurangabad in 1707, there ended the mighty period of Mughal dynasty.

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